Differences of Opinion in Islam
Difference of opinion within the Ummah has often been named as one of the leading causes for our disunity. Aside from historical reasons, this reason seems to share in the blame that Muslim thinkers have traditionally given it over the years. Whether it deserves this blame is a question that has certainly been asked by those who promote unity among Muslims. They quite emphatically proclaim that jurisprudence, schools of thought, and differences of opinion are not reasons for Muslims to remain divided.
Others maintain that our division is mainly based on the historical divisions, and our inclinations to remain divided are solely rooted in these historical mishaps. If we re-examine the historical divisions, however, we will soon come to realize that these divisions were based around similar differences of opinion. At some point the matter escalates, and the divisions become more serious than simply matters of jurisprudence.
The Messenger of Allah, upon whom be peace and blessings, was well aware that his followers would have differences of opinion in certain matters. He had instilled in his companions a strong sense of loyalty and obedience. When a command was given by Allah, the Muslims reacted and obeyed. They did not question Allah's injunctions or ponder over alternatives. Allah's authority is absolute, and the companions of the Prophet (saaws), practiced this concept in their daily lives.
The human mind is not completely perfect and above the capability of making mistakes. Its perceptions do not always fit reality. Furthermore, situations arise where a particular instruction may not apply in the same manner as it applies in a previous situation. Let us suppose, for example, that a store owner gives an order to his delivery man to make sure a package arrives at a particular house within 30 minutes. In order to ensure the package arrives on time, the man gives the carrier specific directions that he is expected to follow. While he is driving along his specific route, the carrier comes to some construction along the road. He happens to know that if he drives through the construction, he will not arrive at the prescribed time. He also knows that there is another way to get there, so he elects to take this route and abandon the one given to him by his employer. The carrier arrives on time and delivers the package.
The carrier obeyed his employer's instructions in that the package was delivered at the specified time. His method of arriving there, however, was modified according to his situation. Such is the case with practicing Islam. Allah has allowed a certain amount of flexibility in our practices. We are allowed and in fact encouraged to think freely and make decisions for ourselves. We are not, however, allowed to completely stray away from the specific orders, just as the delivery carrier cannot deliver the package to the wrong customer.
Allah's commands are clear, but there are certain injunctions that are subject to interpretation. Such interpretation requires logical thinking and reasoning to arrive at a sound conclusion. This type of thinking is called Ijtihad. Derived from the word "jahada" which means to endeavor, strive, labor, take pains, etc., "Ijtihad" means independent judgment in a legal or theological question based on the interpretation and application of religious texts.
During the Prophet's (saaws) lifetime, he allowed his companions to practice Ijtihad on small matters without first consulting him. This way, he was able to train them in this method of independent thinking without allowing them to also harm themselves if they made the wrong decisions. If they made the wrong decision, he (saaws) could simply correct them.
On one occasion, for example, the companion of the Prophet (saaws), Ammar ibn Yassir interpreted the ayat revealed from Allah about wudu (ablution):
"...and [when] you find no water, then take for yourselves clean sand or earth and rub therewith your faces and hands" (4:43)
Ammar, at the time was in a state of ritual impurity and finding no water, he rolled himself over the sand to perform the required full body bathing (ghusl). Instead of scolding Ammar, the Prophet simply said to him: "Suffice it for you to have rubbed your face and your hands."
There were also instances when it would have been improper for the companions of the Prophet (saaws) to make Ijtihad, and they needed guidance from him (saaws) on certain matters. An example of such and instance is narrated below:
"Narrated Abdullah ibn Abbas:
A man was injured during the lifetime of the Apostle of Allah (peace_be_upon_him); he then had a sexual dream, and he was advised to wash and he washed himself. Consequently he died. When this was reported to the Apostle of Allah (peace_be_upon_him) he said: They killed him; may Allah kill them! Is not inquiry the cure of ignorance?"
Because of the seriousness of the man's condition, the people should have asked the Prophet (saaws) for a correct verdict in that matter instead of exercising Ijtihad where there is always the potential for mistakes. In this case, the mistake cost the man his life.
We can conclude from the examples above that there are two types of Ijtihad:
1. Ijtihad done by the individual who is competent in the religious texts and able to make decisions reasonably.
2. Ijtihad done by such an individual as above for the benefit of someone who is not knowledgeable of the texts.
The second type became increasingly important during the years after the death of the Messenger of Allah (saaws). Al-Islam had quickly spread throughout parts of the world, and many of the people had a number of disadvantages that left them unable to learn the religion on their own. First, many of them were illiterate and uneducated. This in itself means that a teacher is required. As the religion continued to spread, non-Arabic speaking people also accepted Al-Islam and were in need of teachers.
The responsibility to lead the masses politically and religiously fell on the shoulders of the khalifa (successor to Muhammad, upon whom be peace). Being the successor to Muhammad, who was undoubtedly the leader of the Islamic State, the khalifa was left with the task of guiding the masses of Muslims along the right path. It was not an easy task, and some even wished to be removed from its responsibility. For example, Umar ibn Al-Khattab, on numerous occasions indicated that he wished he had not been chosen (by Abu Bakr) to be the khalifa. There are obvious reasons why anyone would feel uneasy about leading thousands of people. The potential for error affects not only oneself but also the entire Ummah.
With the help of other prominent companions, however, the Ummah managed to survive relatively unscathed. Certainly there were dark moments, and no one can erase these from history. The religion of Al-Islam, however, was still preserved through the caliphate of Ali ibn Abu Talib. After his assassination, the caliphate was passed on to his son, al-Hasan.
After much dispute with Mu'awiya, the governor of Syria, al-Hasan relinquished the caliphate to Mu'awiya in order to preserve the unity of the Ummah and avoid imminent bloodshed of thousands of Muslims. This period known as 'am al jama'ah, marked the end of the khalifa's political and religious authority. The caliphate, although still the political authority, was no longer considered adequate and qualified enough to guide the Ummah in religious matters.
As a result, Muslims began searching out the learned (ulema) to guide them in religious matters. Over the years, this caused obvious problems. While the ulema maintained their religious authority, many people, and perhaps rightfully so, insisted that the learned men should actually have gained political authority as well. Thus, the khalifas felt threatened by the knowledgeable scholars who always had more supporters and more loyal companions.
Not until the caliphate of 'Umar ibn 'Abdul Aziz was any attempt made to reconcile the separation of the religion from the state. He made reforms, and in his attempt for reconciliation, he ordered the compilation of many ahadith (reports of the Prophet's words and actions) in order to preserve the Prophetic knowledge and thus limit the need for scholarly verdicts (fatawa). New issues constantly arose, however, and the compilation of ahadith actually added fuel to the fire that was burning in the Ummah.
As a result of the separation between religious and political arenas, schools of religious thought inevitably developed. Because no one person among the ulema had complete religious authority, the people were left to choose which scholar they wanted to follow. While the people divided into sects, however, the scholars actually used the time to discuss religious matters amongst themselves and also learn from one another. In doing so, the core of Islam was preserved. Although the scholars disagreed on certain issues, they were able to check themselves and each other on matters about which there should be no dispute. It is no surprise, therefore, that two of the Imams out of the four Sunni schools of thought, Imams Abu Hanifah and Malik ibn Anas, studied under one of the 12 shi'a Imams, Jafar As-Sadiq before they set off teaching to others. Imam Abu Hanifah reportedly said, "If not for those 2 years, Nu'man (Abu Hanifah) would have been lost."
While the relationship between ulema was rather tame, their relationship with the caliphate was hostile and often times violent. Almost all of the major scholars of this time period were persecuted in some way. Below is a list of some of the atrocities committed against them by khalifas who felt threatened by their religious knowledge and devout followings:
* Imam Husayn ibn Ali and his family (the Prophet's family) were brutally murdered by the army of the khalifa, Yazid ibn Mu'awiya.
* Imam Abu Hanifah was ordered to be thrown in prison by the khalifa al-Mansur where he subesquently died.
* The khalifa al-Mansur also ordered that Imam Malik be beaten. He was beaten until his arms became paralyzed.
* Imam Shafi was taken in chains from Yemen to Baghdad
* Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal was jailed by the orders of the khalifa.
*Almost all of the Imams of the Prophet's family were poisoned at the request of the khalifas of their times.
The list certainly does not end there, but the idea is clear that there was a struggle going on between these two factions. In the next part of this series, we will explore the consequences of this struggle and the impressions that it left on the Ummah. We will examine the termination of Ijtihad and why it occurred, and we will conclude with a look at the revival of religious thought all over the Muslim world in this century, insha'Allah.